Another name for a computer's processor is central processing unit (CPU). Installed in a printed circuit board (PCB) called a motherboard (also known as a mainboard), the processor processes the programmed software instructions of applications and utilities, such as MS Word, and Norton AntiVirus, according to the programmed instructions provided by the computer's operating system, which is usually a version of Windows or Linux or Apple's Mac OS X.

For many years only single-core processors containing one processing unit were available. However over the last few years dual-core processors that contain two identical processing units and quad-core processors that contain four identical processing units have become available from AMD and Intel. AMD also provide triple-core processors that have three processing cores, which are cheaper than its quad-core processors.

The following article discusses the use of multi-core processors and when their use improves performance and when it does not.

Desktop multiprocessing: Not so fast -

"Not every application can be reprogrammed for multicore architectures, and some bottlenecks will always remain. Here's why." -

http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9136633/...

The manufacturer of a particular model of processor sets it to run at a particular speed, which is really the frequency (measured in gigahertz in modern processors) that it operates at. The higher the frequency (1GHz, 2GHz, 2.5GHz, 3.0GHz, etc.) the faster the processor can process data. Note that the design is also an important factor in how fast a particular make/model of processor processes data. However, most processors can be overclocked to run faster than the manufacturer's setting allows. The amount of speed/frequency overhead that a particular processor has depends on several factors. Click here! to go to the information and links on overclocking computer hardware, which includes the memory and the graphics card. If you want to read a good introduction to overclocking, visit this webpage:

Make your PC go faster for free - "It may sound daunting, but overclocking your PC is actually quite simple - and, as Antony Leather explains, it can give your system a real power boost." - http://www.expertreviews.co.uk/features/259888/...

Software has to be specially written to run optimally (as fast and as efficiently as possible) on processors that have two, three or four cores, otherwise it won't run any faster than on a single-core processor. The problem is that software development always lags quite far behind hardware development, so users have to wait for software that can run optimally on the latest hardware. (Of all software, PC games are the quickest to take advantage of technological hardware advancements.)

That said, even if you don't have, or perhaps won't ever have the required software, you should only buy a desktop or a laptop PC if it has a dual-core or a quad-core processor, because those processors use less energy and therefore run much cooler. Given that overheating is the cause of many problems, especially with laptops, that is a definite bonus in a system.

Quad-core processors can be dramatically faster than dual-core processors when running software that has been written to run on four cores, but there is not much of such software currently available. However, if you run several applications at once any operating system that can run multiple cores will use a core to run each application, thereby increasing performance considerably.

There are only two major manufacturers of desktop PC and laptop PC processors - AMD and Intel. However, there are many major manufacturers of the motherboards that these processors run on. You cannot run an Intel processor on an AMD-based motherboard and vice versa. Visit the Motherboards, PC Cases and Power Supplies pages on this site for more information on them. Use your browser's Back button to return to this page.

With the arrival of its Core 2 processor technology, Intel named both its desktop PC and laptop PC processors Core 2 Duo (the processor has two cores) and Core 2 Quad (the processor has four cores). The laptop processors start with a T, such as T7100. Desktop processors start with an E, such as E8500, and X for the extreme (extremely fast and expensive) version, a Q for quad-core, such as Q6700, and QX for the extreme version, such as QX9770.

November 18, 2008. - Intel has released three of its new Socket LGA1366 quad-core Core i7 processors. Here is a good review:

Intel Core i7 - http://www.pcpro.co.uk/reviews/233892/intel-core-i7.html

Computer Shopper gave the Intel Core i5-750 quad-core processor a five-star Best Buy award. Read the review here. -

http://www.expertreviews.co.uk/reviews/269092/intel-core-i5750.html

And here is the information on the new processors on Intel's website:

Intel® Core™ i7 Processor -

http://www.intel.com/products/processor/corei7/...

The major motherboard manufacturers have brought out motherboards that support the new Intel desktop PC processors.

Asus - http://www.asus.com/products.aspx?l1=3&l2=179

MSI - http://global.msi.com.tw/index.php...

Gigabyte - http://www.gigabyte.com.tw/Products/Motherboard/...

User manuals are available from all three of those manufacturers, so you can download copies and have a look at what is on offer.

Three Core i7 Systems From Boutique Builders -

"We’ve been curious to find out what boutique PC vendors might build around this new processor, so we invited three of the big names in this space—Alienware, AVADirect, and Cyberpower—to send us their best efforts for a rigorous round of benchmarking." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/core-i7-system,review-31539.html

Here are reviews of each of the three processors:

Intel Core i5-750 -

http://www.pcpro.co.uk/reviews/processors/351385/intel-core-i5-750

Intel Core i7-860 -

http://www.pcpro.co.uk/reviews/processors/351388/intel-core-i7-860

Intel Core i7-870 -

http://www.pcpro.co.uk/reviews/processors/351391/intel-core-i7-870

Intel Core i5 And Core i7: Intel’s Mainstream Magnum Opus -

"We set off testing Intel's Lynnfield processors with low expectations, but were surprised to find the new LGA 1156-based CPUs are capable of holding their own and then some. Read on for more about Turbo Boost, Hyper-Threading, P55, and our recommendation." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/intel-core-i5,review-31674.html

Computer Shopper gave the AMD Phenom II X2 550 Black Edition dual-core processor a five-star review. This is the first Phenom II processor to have only two processing cores. Previous models are triple- or quad-core processors. Read the review here:

http://www.expertreviews.co.uk/reviews/260935/...

If you are thinking of buying a desktop PC which has a particular make and model of processor, you can visit the following two pages to view tables containing all of the technical specifications (clock speed, supported instruction sets, cache, etc.) and other information, such as the dates of release, of all of the processors made by AMD and Intel up to the present. The further down the list a processor appears, the more recent it is.

Desktop CPU Comparison Guide - AMD processors -

http://www.techarp.com/showarticle.aspx?artno=337&pgno=0

Desktop CPU Comparison Guide - Intel processors -

http://www.techarp.com/showarticle.aspx?artno=337&pgno=4

This page provides a comparison of laptop/notebook PC processors:

Comparison of Mobile Processors -

http://www.notebookcheck.net/Mobile-Processors-Benchmarklist.2436.0.html

If any of the above links don't work, try entering a suitable search using the relevant keywords in the Google search box at the top of this page (with its Web radio button enabled).

The Tom's Hardware Guide processor charts can give you a good idea how different processors compare with each other.

Updated CPU Charts 2008: AMD Versus Intel -

"The new CPU charts for 2008 from Tom’s Hardware have, at long last, arrived. There are 18 entries from AMD and 36 processors from Intel, which were put to the test using a fresh gauntlet of benchmarks. For more meaningful comparisons and the most consistent benchmark results, our testing platforms were fully re-equipped. The graphics card used was a powerful MSI N280GTX-T2D1G-OC based on the Nvidia GeForce GTX 280." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/amd-intel-pc-processor,review-31355.html

Mobile [laptop/notebook] CPU Charts -

"Tom's Interactive Mobile CPU Charts focus on popular mobile processors, which are used in laptops and notebooks because of their increased energy efficiency." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/charts/processors/3d-studio-max-9,463.html

If your desktop PC has an Intel-based motherboard, you can use:

Intel Processors and Boards Compatibility Tool -

Find the Intel processors that will work with your PC's Intel-based motherboard. Find motherboards boards that will work with your PC's processor. Check the compatibility of a motherboard and processor.

http://processormatch.intel.com/COMPDB/Default.aspx

The images at the top of this page show an AMD Athlon 64 processor (right) and the packaging that the retail product comes in (left). A heatsink and fan cooling unit is included in the package. If you want to use thermal paste to improve the transfer of heat from the processor to the heatsink, you'll have to buy some, because none is included in the package. The array of pins that fit into the motherboard's processor socket are on the reverse side of the processor. The processor in the image is for advertising purposes only, it is not what it looks like in reality. Images of the top and bottom of the real thing are shown further down this page.

AMD Athlon 64 single-core and AMD Athlon 64 X2 dual-core processors are fitted into and run from Socket 939 and Socket AM2/AM2+ motherboards. The first AMD Phenom triple and quad-core processors use Socket AM2+ motherboards, but the new Phenom II models, use Socket AM3 motherboards, which supports DDR3 RAM memory. Note that the Socket AM3 Phenom processors also run on Socket AM2+ motherboards, which use the cheaper DDR2 RAM memory.

Note that AMD Phenom and Phenom II dual-core, triple-core and quad-core processors no longer use speed-rating to compare them to Intel's equivalent processors; they just have model numbers like Intel's processors. As can be seen on this page:

CPU Benchmarks - Common CPU's -

"This chart comparing common CPU's is made using thousands of PerformanceTest benchmark results and is updated daily. This chart mainly compares Desktop CPUs, from high end CPUs (such as Intel Core2, Intel Core2 Quad and AMD Phenom Quad-Core processors) to mid-range and lower end CPUs (such as Intel Pentium 4 and AMD Athlon processors)." -

http://www.cpubenchmark.net/common_cpus.html

****

I am not going to provide the pricing of the various available Intel and AMD processors here, because it is constantly changing. There you are many price-comparison websites that provide up-to-date pricing information, such as Ciao - http://www.ciao.co.uk/CPUs_5302007_2.

Visit the Annotated images of ATX Socket LGA775, Socket A and Socket 939 motherboards page on this site to see annotated images of motherboards with those socket types.

The following online video shows a desktop PC being built with an Asus P5E64 WS Professional motherboard and an Intel Core 2 Quad QX9770 quad-core processor. It shows you where the motherboard is installed in the case and where the processor is installed in the motherboard in a desktop PC.

Video: How To Build An Intel QX9770 QuadCore PC -

http://www.informationweek.com/blog/main/archives/2008/02/...

THE LATEST PROCESSOR NEWS

Intel releases its Core i7 and new Core i5 processors on its Socket 1156 platform

September 8, 2009. - Intel has released three new quad-core desktop-PC processors - the first Core i5 processor (Core i5-750) and two Core i7 processors (Core i7-860 and Core i7-870), all of which use new Socket LGA1156 platform, manufactured using the latest 45-nanometer (45nm) fabrication process. The new Core i7 processors feature Intel’s HyperThreading technology, which effectively allows them to function as eight-core processors, but the Core i5 processor can only function as a non-enhanced quad-core processor. No Extreme Editions of these processors are available, so overclockers are not able to tweak the processors' frequency multipliers; overclocking can only be achieved by increasing the system-bus speed.

As with the previous Socket 1366 Core i7 quad-core processors the new Intel processors have on-chip memory and PCI bus controllers and 8MB of shared Level 3 cache. However, instead of being able to run RAM memory in triple-channel and dual-channel modes as the original Socket 1366 Core i7 processors do, the new processors can only run in dual-channel mode, which means that the motherboards that run them only have to have four memory slots for two sets of identical memory modules running in dual-channel mode, not six memory slots in order to run two sets of three identical memory modules in triple-channel mode.

Because of technological improvements, such as an improved Turbo Mode that adjusts the processor clock speed to boost single-threaded applications when other cores not being used, the new processors have similar performance to the original Core i7 processors, but are being sold at significantly lower prices (£140, excluding VAT, for the Core i5-750 compared to £180, excluding VAT, for the original Socket 1366 Core i7-920). Socket LGA1156 motherboards are also cheaper than Socket LGA1366 motherboards (many are available for below £100). However, since the new processors have a new socket, they cannot be installed in the original Core i7 processors' Socket LGA1366 motherboards. This is a negative feature considering that all of AMD's Phenom II Socket AM3 processors can be installed in the earlier Socket AM2+ motherboards.

Here are reviews of each of the three processors:

Intel Core i5-750 -

http://www.pcpro.co.uk/reviews/processors/351385/intel-core-i5-750

Intel Core i7-860 -

http://www.pcpro.co.uk/reviews/processors/351388/intel-core-i7-860

Intel Core i7-870 -

http://www.pcpro.co.uk/reviews/processors/351391/intel-core-i7-870

Intel has introduced a star-rating system to identify the features of its processors at a glance

June 3, 2009. - Intel has introduced a new way of helping desktop and laptop computer buyers to identify which of its processors is most suitable for their computing needs - a star-rating system. Each processor is given between one and five stars to indicate the number of features and the capabilities that it possesses. The higher its rating the more features and capabilities that a particular processor possesses. The new system is supposed to help computer buyers to distinguish between processors in the same range and indicate differences between the processor ranges. The current desktop and laptop ranges are Core 2 Duo, Core 2 Quad (Socket LGA775 processors) and Core i7 (Socket LGA1366 processors).

However, Intel has not said what will happen as new ranges of processors are introduced and the older models given high ratings deserve lower ratings by comparison. This situation will arise when the company announces a new range of processors in September 2009.

Intel® Processor Ratings -

"Each processor is assigned between one and five stars depending on a combination of features, including cores, GHz, cache, and other technologies. More stars indicate greater features and increased capabilities compared to other Intel® processors." -

http://www.intel.com/consumer/rating.htm

AMD's Phenom II triple-core and quad-core processors are now available

February 17, 2009 - AMD has released several new Socket AM3 Phenom II triple-core and quad-core processors, including the triple-core Phenom II X3 720 Black Edition (2.8GHz) and the quad-core Phenom II X4 810 (2.6GHz). AMD has also released a lower-clocked triple-core Phenom II X3 710 (2.6GHz) and OEM-only quad-core Phenom II X4 805 (2.5GHz) and Phenom II X4 910 (2.6GHz) models. These processors are primarily designed to use a Socket AM3 platform, but are backward-compatible with existing Socket AM2+ motherboards. The Phenom II processors use DDR3 RAM memory, but can use DDR2 memory when used in a Socket AM2+ motherboard.

Update: the dual-core AMD Phenom II X2 550 Black Edition has been made available. priced at only £75, Computer Shopper gave it a five-star Budget Buy award. Review - http://www.expertreviews.co.uk/reviews/260935/...

The web is full of interesting information on these new processors. To locate it, you can enter phenom ii in the Google search box at the top of this page (with its Web radio button enabled).

Intel's new Socket LGA1366 Core i7 quad-core desktop PC processors are now available

December 5, 2008. - Intel has released three of its new Socket LGA1366 quad-core Core i7 processors.

The new processors, which are built using the latest 45nm fabrication process, differ in several significant ways from Intel's Core 2 Duo dual-core and Core 2 Quad quad-core processors. The traditional frontside bus that links the processor to the RAM memory on the motherboard has been replaced by the new QuickPath interface - a memory controller built into the processor, which operates in a similar way to the HyperTransport memory controller that has been built into AMD processors for several years. Unfortunately, QuickPath only supports the latest DDR3 RAM memory, so you won't be able to reuse any DDR2 memory that you may have. Moreover, the DDR3 memory can be run in triple-channel mode instead of the dual-channel mode that AMD's processors support. This means that instead of using two memory modules in conjunction, as is the case with dual-channel mode, three modules of the same capacity and type can be run from the controller at the same time in order to increase performance. For this reason, Socket 1366 motherboards have six memory slots so that two sets of three modules can be run in triple-channel mode.

As with the Core 2 Quad range of processors, all of the Core i7 processors have four processor cores (in effect four processors housed in a single unit), which makes running multiple applications easy, because each application can have its own core processing it. Moreover, all of the Core i7 processors also use Hyper-Threading Technology that was introduced by Intel's Pentium 4 processors. Using it, each core can process two threads of information at the same time, in effect adding four virtual cores, which boosts performance significantly, but doesn't double it.

All of the Core i7 processors have 256K of Level 2 (L2) cache for each core, which share 8MB of Level 3 (L3) cache.

Despite using the same 45nm fabrication process as the latest Core 2 Quad processors, the new Core i7 quad-core processors have a higher power requirement (130W) compared to that of the Core 2 Quad processors (95W), which means that a bigger heatsink and fan unit is required to keep the processor cool, which, in turn, means a noisier PC.

Computer Shopper reviewed the Core i7 920, which runs at 2.66GHz, in issue 251. It was only give a a two-star rating due to the high cost of DDR3 memory and the motherboards that run them, plus the fact that the prototype system Computer Shopper used had a lower benchmark performance than an equivalent Core 2 Quad Q9550 processor. The advice was not to rush out and buy Core i7 until finalised motherboards and updated drivers can be used to put them to the test.

Here is the review:

http://www.computershopper.co.uk/reviews/238866/intel-core-i7-920.html

Processors and the sockets they can be fitted into on a computer's motherboard started to become confusing back in the days when the maximum speed of a PC processor was 200MHz and 233MHz, and Intel dropped using Super Socket 7 (SS7), while AMD went on using it all the way up to 550MHz for its K6-2 and K6-3 processors.

Today, Intel's single-core Pentium 4 processor has reached a clock speed of 3.8GHz, which is twenty times faster than 200MHz. However, due to heating problems, the clock speed has halted and both AMD and Intel have opted to develop dual-core and quad-core processors (two processor cores and four processor cores housed as a single unit) instead of attempting to overcome the problem of overheating that comes into play with clock speeds of 4.0GHz and higher.

On top of that, AMD and Intel have added 64-bit processors to their existing ranges of 32-bit processors. They can run on a 32-bit and 64-bit operating systems, and can run 32-bit and 64-bit software, so it won't be long before 32-bit processors are no longer manufactured.

There are eight bits in a byte of binary computer code. The higher the number of bits of binary code (data) that a processor can process at a time, the more powerful it is. 64-bit processors, running on a 64-bit operating system that is running 64-bit software can process twice as much data at the same time as 32-bit processors running on a 32-bit operating system that is running 32-bit software. However, when processing 64-bit software a 64-bit operating system requires twice as much RAM memory as a 32-bit operating system running 32-bit software.

On top of that, laptop/notebook computers can use the processors used in desktop computers, or use processors specially designed for low power consumption so that battery life is extended and overheating problems do not occur. Both AMD and Intel have ranges of mobile processors for laptops/notebooks. Moreover, it is also possible to buy motherboards that allow a mobile notebook processor to be used in a desktop PC.

Using a laptop/notebook Pentium M notebook processor in a desktop PC

If you want a quiet desktop computer that uses only a minimal amount of power and that runs so cool that it can be fitted with a passive heatsink (one without a fan), ATX desktop PC motherboards are available that use the processors normally only found in laptop/notebook computers. It is also possible to buy an adapter that fits to particular standard motherboards that allows a mobile notebook processor to be used.

Click here! to go directly to information on these motherboards, processors, and adapters on Page 3 of this article.

The choice doesn't end there. Both AMD and Intel have made dual-core processors available, which are single units that house two processor cores with the same clock speed. Moreover, Intel first made quad-core processors available (its Core 2 Quad range) in January 2007. AMD made its Socket AM2/AM2+ Phenom range of quad-core processors available in November 2007. In February 2009, AMD made its range of Phenom II quad-core processors available that use Socket AM3 motherboards and which use DDR3 RAM memory.

Socket AM3 Arrives: AMD Joins the DDR3 Revolution -

http://www.sysopt.com/features/cpu/article.php/3803661

Note that all of the dual-core processors made by AMD and Intel are 64-bit processors that can run 32-bit and 64-bit software, which includes a 64-bit operating system, such as Windows XP Professional x64 Edition • Windows Vista Home Premium 64-bit edition • Windows Vista Home Basic 64-bit edition • Windows Vista Ultimate 64-bit edition • Windows Vista Business 64-bit edition • Windows Vista Enterprise 64-bit edition and Linux.

Note that a 64-bit operating system can also run 32-bit software with ease. However, note that some 32-bit software might not run on a 64-bit operating system, and all 16-bit software will not run on one.

WOWing Your 32-Bit Applications with 64-Bit Windows Part 1 -

http://www.devx.com/amd/Article/20342

AMD has now made triple-core (X3) and quad-core (X4) processors available. This article compares them and the alternatives from Intel. Note that Intel does not have triple-core processors.

New AMD Phenom X3 Vs. Phenom X4 -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/amd-phenom-athlon,review-30731.html

See the Using Windows Vista section on this site for more information on it.

When two or more applications are running on a dual-core or a quad-core system, the work can be shared by the two or four processor cores. However, a single application won't run faster on a dual-core/quad-core system unless it has been programmed to do so by splitting it into threads that can be shared between the two/four cores. A multithreaded application is one that has been programmed to run on two or more processor cores. Such applications are currently (April, 2007) still rare.

AMD Athlon 64 X2 Dual-Core Processor for Desktop -

http://www.amd.com/usen/Processors/.../0,,30_118_9485_13041,00.html

Intel Core Duo Processors - http://www.intel.com/products/processor/coreduo/

If you are using software that hasn't been written to take advantage of two processor cores, you can make use of SMP Seesaw by Mike Lin.

"SMP Seesaw is a small utility for dual CPU workstations that allows the user to finely tune how Windows balances the processing load between the two CPUs."

Monitoring and optimising applications on dual-core, quad-core, and multiple-processor systems

Windows XP and Windows Vista set running processes to run on all of the available processors by default. In Windows XP and Windows Vista, which both support dual-core, quad-core, and multiple-processor systems, you can set which of the processors runs a particular program or application. This is known as setting the processor affinity. However, note well that you should not use any third-party utility to set the processor affinity for operating system files, because doing so could cause system instability, system crashes, and data or system loss.

Here is how you set the processor affinity for Windows Explorer:

Press the Ctrl + Alt + Del key combination to bring up the Windows Task Manager. Open the Processes tab with the mouse pointer. Windows Explorer is explorer.exe. Right-click on explorer.exe under Processes, and choose Set Affinity. This brings up the Processor Affinity window, which has boxes for 32 processors (CPU0 to CPU31). In a dual-core system, which uses two processors, the two processors are called CPU0 and CPU1. They are both enabled by default, which is the best setting for Windows Explorer, but, because explorer.exe is a Windows program, not a system file, you could choose to have just one of the processors running it by removing one of the enabling check marks to disable that processor from running it. You can assign a processor to run any of the processes (programs and applications) listed under Processes.

Monitoring and Optimizing Apps on Dual-Core and Multiprocessor Systems -

http://www.awprofessional.com/articles/article.asp?p=465310&seqNum=2&rl=1

Desktop PCs and laptop/notebook computers that run a dual-core processor are not much more expensive than those that run a single-core processor. Therefore, for the best future-proofing, buying a PC or notebook with a dual-core processor is the best choice. However, it won't be long before that choice moves to a computer running a quad-core processor.

On November 14, 2006, Intel added to the confusing number of choices by making quad-core processors available. A quad-core processor has four processor cores housed in a single unit, and systems running them can be used in network servers and in desktop PCs. All too soon, laptop computers will also be running them.

The review that starts on the following page deals with a Gateway FX530XT computer, designed for PC gaming, that has a Intel Core 2 Extreme QX6700 quad-core processor, the four cores of which run at 2.66GHz. The other specifications are a RAM memory FSB that has an effective speed of 1066MHz FSB, and a 2x4MB cache. The graphics cards are two ATI Radeon X1950 cards set up to use ATI's CrossFire technology. Each card has 512MB GDDR4 of memory and supports DVI HDCP, VGA (via adapter) and TV-Out connections.

Gateway Goes Gaming: FX530XT Review -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/gateway-goes-gaming-uk,review-2077.html

In November 2007, AMD brought its quad-core Phenom range of quad-core processors to the market.

AMD Phenom Quad-Core Processors -

http://www.amd.com/...0,,30_118_15331_15332,00.html

Since then, the AMD Phenom II range of processors has been made available, which includes dual-core, triple-core and quad-core models.

Are Intel And IBM Cheating With Their Quad-Core Processors? -

http://www.informationweek.com/.../are_intel_and_i.html

Intel Core2 Quad Processors -

"Leaders of the pack seeking monster performance, look no further. With four execution cores, the Intel® Core™2 Quad processor blows through processor-intensive tasks in demanding multitasking environments and makes the most of highly threaded applications. Whether you're creating multimedia, annihilating your gaming enemies, or running compute-intensive applications at one time, new quad-core processing will change the way you do everything. Pioneer the new world of quad-core and unleash the power of multithreading." - http://www.intel.com/products/processor/core2quad/index.htm

Do More Cores Beat More Clock Speed? -

"Nearly everyone who’s followed CPU [processor] technology over the past two years knows that quad cores have a distinct performance advantage in a wide variety of professional applications, because many applications are designed for multi-threading. These same readers also know that the four-core advantage virtually evaporates in games, because games usually support only a single thread and occasionally two, but not four..." - http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/extreme-fsb-2,review-2383.html

The current state of play between Intel and AMD processors

You can find plenty of recent articles discussing the state of play between Intel and AMD by entering the search term AMD vs Intel in the Google search box at the top of this page (with its Web radio button enabled). Here are a few that I have come across:

Updated CPU Charts 2008: AMD Versus Intel -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/amd-intel-pc-processor,review-31355.html

February 18, 2008. - AMD vs Intel: The future of desktop CPUs -

http://www.pcadvisor.co.uk/news/index.cfm?newsid=12061

CPU Benchmarks - Common CPU's -

CPU Benchmarks - High End CPU's - Intel vs AMD -

"This chart comparing high end CPU's is made using thousands of PerformanceTest benchmark results and is updated daily. These are the high end AMD and Intel CPU's are typically those found in newer computers." -

http://www.cpubenchmark.net/high_end_cpus.html

The safest way to upgrade RAM: Use the UK and US Crucial Memory Advisors

Paul Mullen, the highly-respected computer guru of the Helpfile at ComputerShopper.co.uk - "I have recently been buying my memory only from Crucial Technology. I would rather pay the extra cost than waste time trying to track down the obscure program faults that bad memory can cause."

The memory requirements of the versions of Windows Vista

Most of the versions of Windows Vista require more RAM memory to run optimally on a computer that doesn't use memory-hungry applications than Windows XP. A video-editing application is an example of memory-intensive software. Only Windows Vista Home Basic has a recommended minimum amount of memory of 512MB, which is the same amount recommended for Windows XP. Windows Vista Home Premium, the most popular version, and Windows Vista Ultimate require a recommended minimum of 1GB (1024MB) of memory, which is twice the amount of minimum memory recommended to run Windows XP. For more information on computer memory, read the RAM pages of this site.

UK - Crucial Memory Advisor - UK

USA - Crucial Memory Advisor - USA

For example, if your computer has an Asus motherboard, open the menu, scroll down to ASUS, and click GO. If, say, you have a Dell computer, scroll down to DELL, and do likewise. You will be taken to the relevant information on Crucial's website.

If you don't know the make and model of the motherboard installed in your computer, here is a good free utility - Belarc Advisor - that creates an analysis of the hardware and software on a personal computer. Look under FREE DOWNLOAD - http://www.belarc.com/. Another utility that also provides detailed information on the memory itself is CPU-Z.

RECENT ARTICLES ON PROCESSORS/MOTHERBOARDS

AMD Phenom II X4 965 BE: Same Speed, Less Power -

"AMD introduces a new revision of its flagship Phenom II X4 965 processor as well as a new 3.1 version of their AMD Overdrive overclocking software. We take a quick look at both to see what advantages they offer, as well as AMD's strategy on the whole." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/phenom-x4-965,review-31722.html

Core i7-870 Overclocking And Fixing Blown P55-Based Boards -

"Last month, we discovered that many budget P55-based motherboards simply weren't designed to stand up to the rigors of overclocking--bad news for intrepid value-based enthusiasts. Today we revisit the topic with revised boards and a Core i7-870." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/p55-motherboard-overclock,review-31721.html

Overclocked On Air: Intel's Core i5-750 - "Intel's new quad-core i5 and i7 CPUs for LGA 1156 deliver plenty of performance and impressive efficiency. But how far can they be overclocked? We take the entry-level model Core i5-750 as far as it'll go with a modest air cooler and benchmark it." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/core-i5-750-overclock,review-31717.html

AMD Or Intel: Which $100 Gaming CPU Should You Buy? : Which Vendor Sells The Best Budget-Gaming CPU -

"One hundred dollars seems like nothing for a new CPU, especially with so many new GPUs calling to us. We put the Athlon II X4 620, Phenom II X3 710, Phenom II X2 550, and dual-core Pentium E6500 to the test to find the best performer in today's games." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/best-gaming-cpu,review-31706.html

AMD Athlon II X4 620: Quad Core For The Masses At $100 : Phenom II Without L3 Cache = Athlon II -

"AMD introduces the Propus core, an entry-level Athlon II X4 with a $100 price point. We looked at the first model, the 2.6 GHz 620, and put its performance and efficiency to task. It appears that this chip could become a great upgrade option." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/athlon-ii-propus,review-31679.html

Intel's first Core i5 and new Core i7s benchmarked -

"Intel has unveiled three new CPUs, among them the first Core i5-branded processor. The Core i5-750, Core i7-860 and Core i7-870 are based on the new Lynnfield core and use a brand new LGA 1156 socket format." -

http://www.pcpro.co.uk/news/351382/...

Intel releases first Nehalem chip for mainstream PCs -

http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9137678/...

Best Gaming CPUs For The Money: August '09 -

"In this, our second installment of the Best Gaming CPUs For The Money, we roll out another batch of recommendations, plus add a couple of other attributes readers wanted to see last time, such as platform longevity and overclockability." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/best-gaming-cpu,review-31666.html

Making Lemonade: Overclocking Your Locked AMD Processor -

"We're spoiled. We know we are. Most of our AMD-oriented overclocking efforts center on unlocked Black Edition CPUs. But what if you're running a standard Phenom II? Today we show you how to get just as much performance from it using three techniques." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/amd-cpu-overclock,review-31664.html

Is It Worth Upgrading Your Stock CPU Cooler? : From The Boxed Cooler To Zalman’s CNPS 10X -

"Retail processors usually come with a bundled cooler, which will serve you well—at least until you try to overclock. We replaced the heat sink that Intel includes with its Core i7-920 with a higher-end model from Zalman in order to gauge the improvement." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/heatsink-heatpipe-cpu,review-31668.html

Intel Core i5 And Core i7: Intel’s Mainstream Magnum Opus -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/intel-core-i5,review-31674.html

Core i5, Core i7, CrossFire, And SLI: Gaming Paradise, Redux? -

"With the launch of Core i7, we ran an insane load of gaming benchmarks to explore CrossFire and SLI performance on X58. Today's P55 launch sees another Intel platform with great graphics options, and we're back with new CPUs, GPUs, SSDs, and games." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/core-i5-gaming,review-31673.html

AMD Revs Quad Core With Phenom II X4 965 -

"The newest entry is AMD's Phenom II X4 965 Black Edition. The 3.4-GHz quad-core chip, which modders are already overclocking to 3.9-GHz, goes for $245.In terms of specs, this 3.4-GHz chip has the fastest stock clock speed available today. Intel's Core i7-975 Extreme Edition is rated at 3.33 GHz. I don't like to get into a contest between Intel and AMD, since you end up comparing apples and oranges (processor spec sheets never line up one-for-one). However, clearly this new Phenom II offers phenomenal back for the buck, since it sells for $245, while the Core-i7-975 goes for $1,000." -

http://www.informationweek.com/blog/main/archives/2009/08/...

AMD Phenom II X4 965 Black Edition Review -

"With Intel's LGA 1156 Core i5/i7 launch looming, AMD is looking to strike one more blow against Core 2 Quad before getting compared to the Nehalem micro-architecture at mainstream prices. It's even sweetening the deal with bundle discounts." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/phenom-x4-965,review-31655.html

Part 2: How Many CPU Cores Do You Need? : Time To Follow-Up -

" In part two of this series, we'll address some of the issues raised in part one, such as the effect of shared cache between CPU cores, how the number of cores affects multitasking performance, and comparing the Phenom II to the Core 2 Quad." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/cpu-cores-performance,review-31646.html

Part 2: Little Water, Big Air--Corsair H50 Versus Rosewill FORT120 : It's A Question Of Size -

"Immediately following our first air versus water cooling comparison, Corsair and Rosewill announced new products. In part two, we test these latest air and water coolers against the Cogage and CoolIT contenders from part one." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/corsair-h50-fort120,review-31645.html

Phenom II 955 Versus Core i7 920: Gaming Value Compared -

"The debate over whether to go entry-level [Intel] Core i7 or flagship [AMD] Phenom II rages on. After his most recent Phenom II system review, Don Woligroski revisits the performance of these two platforms with more tests and gives us an updated take." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/phenom-versus-i7,review-31630.html

Undervolting Your Phenom II And Core 2 Processors : Efficiency For Free: Core 2 Quad And Phenom II X4 At Reduced Voltage -

"Did you know that PC power consumption can be reduced by as much as 35W just by cutting back on CPU voltage? We looked for the best stable undervolt settings for Core 2 Quad and Phenom II X4 processors without giving up performance." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/undervolt-cpu-phenom,review-31631.html

How Many CPU Cores Do You Need? : Are We There Yet? -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/multi-core-cpu,review-31567.html

Zotac's Ion Board On Windows 7: Nvidia Re-Arms Intel’s Atom -

"The Atom processor might be the best thing to happen to netbooks, but we’ve been underwhelmed with it on the desktop as far back as Shuttle’s X27. Is Nvidia’s Ion platform able to resuscitate the lightweight processor? We test with Windows 7 to find out."

http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/zotac-ion-atom,2300.html

Dual-core Atom 330 benchmarked -

http://www.pcpro.co.uk/blogs/2008/11/12/dual-core-atom-330-benchmarked/

Don't try this at home: AMD overclocks new Phenom II X4 to 7 GHz -

"While 7 GHz was achieved with extreme cooling, AMD says overclocking up to 3.8 GHz for the 3.2-GHz X4 955 is safe at home." -

http://www.computerworld.com/action/article.do?...

[AMD] Phenom II X4 955: AMD's Dragon Platform Evolves -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/phenom-x4-955,review-31562.html

[AMD] Phenom II: Unlocking Cores, Cache, And A Free Lunch -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/unlock-phenom-ii,review-31556.html

AMD AM3 Phenom II 720 Black Edition CPU - Three cores can sometimes be better than four -

http://www.pcw.co.uk/personal-computer-world/...

Overclocking Core i7: Power Versus Performance : Does it Make Sense To Go for Maximum Performance? -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/overclock-core-i7,review-31553.html

CPU Benchmarks - Common CPU's -

CPU Benchmarks - High End CPU's - Intel vs AMD -

http://www.cpubenchmark.net/high_end_cpus.html

Three Core i7 Systems From Boutique Builders -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/core-i7-system,review-31539.html

Socket AM3 Arrives: AMD Joins the DDR3 Revolution -

http://www.sysopt.com/features/cpu/article.php/3803661

Core 2 Quad Gets Efficient: Enter The Q8200S And Q9550S : Four Cores For The Power Consumption Of Two -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/core-2-q9550s,review-31529.html

Overclocking: Core i7 Vs. Phenom II -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/overclock-phenom-ii,review-31487.html

How To: Overclocking Your AMD Processor : Introduction: The Basics Of Overclocking -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/phenom-overclock-athlon,review-31518.html

Does Intel's Dual-Core Atom Improve Efficiency? : Atom 330: Dual-Core To The Rescue? -

"Atom is all about low cost and low power, but not necessarily efficiency, we've found. We tried the Atom 330 dual-core CPU and put it up against [a single core model]" -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/dual-core-atom-330,review-31505.html

AMD Phenom X4 9850 Black Edition Processor -

http://computershopper.com/...amd-phenom-x4-9850-black-edition-processor

Phenom Recycled: Athlon X2 7000-Series : AMD Introduces Dual-Core Phenom -

"Now the Phenom ranges of processors include dual-core (X2), triple-core (X3) and quad-core (X4)." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/athlon-x2-phenom,review-31465.html

How To: Get A 4 GHz Dual-Core For $120 : Get 4 GHz for $120 -

"Despite the acceptance of overclocking by even the most prominent processor vendors, including AMD and Intel, tweaking and tuning your computer still means pushing it beyond its specifications, introducing potential risk to your system. The good news: that risk is relatively small, and falling processor prices make it increasingly attractive for performance enthusiasts to get high performance from low-cost processors. We recently found an excellent and affordable processor that lends itself to overclocking. Intel’s Core 2 Duo E7200 can operate at about 50 percent increased clock speed without much resistance on air cooling." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/overclocking-core-2-E7200,review-31425.html

Intel Core i7 - http://www.pcpro.co.uk/reviews/233892/intel-core-i7.html

Intel's Core i7: Blazing Fast, But Crippled O/C : Eight Virtual Cores Through Hyper-Threading -

"Just as Intel’s Core 2 has firmly established itself in the market, it is already being replaced by a completely new architecture. Unlike the switch from the Pentium 4 / Pentium D to the Core2—where the new CPUs worked as drop-in replacements on existing boards due to the fact that the processors were pin-compatible—Intel’s newest chip requires a completely new "ecosystem." But this transformation represents nothing less than a milestone for Intel..." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/Intel-Core-i7-Nehalem,review-31404.html

Editor's Corner: Overclocking Core i7 -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/overclocking-core-i7,review-31406.html

Core i7: 4-Way CrossFire, 3-way SLI, Paradise? : Tempered Expectations -

"For the first time ever, gamers are being treated to a reasonably priced platform enabling the best that AMD and Nvidia have to offer." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/core-i7-gaming,review-31407.html

Keeping Your CPU Going If Your Cooler Fails -

"We took low-cost and high-end processors from both AMD and Intel and put them to the test with regular cooling, as well as in a simulation of a broken CPU fan. In so doing, we discovered that there still are considerable differences between AMD and Intel..." -

http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/cpu-cooler-fails,review-29650.html

Spoiled for choice

There are now so many options available that it is becoming more confusing than ever to discover and understand the implications of what is on offer new and on the second-hand market. However, if you keep reading the articles made available on the web, such as this one, you should soon be able to distinguish the wood from the trees.

AMD's 64-bit processors are the Athlon 64, Athlon 64 FX, and its Athlon 64 X2 dual-core ranges. X2 stands for dual core, which means that two processor cores are housed in a single unit.

Dual-core processors run as if they're a single processor, but two processors appear in the Windows Device Manager - and under the Performance tab of the Windows Task Manager that you bring up by pressing the Ctrl+Alt+Del key combination.

Read Managing Processes and Tasks in Windows Vista to find out what the differences are between the Task Manager in Windows XP and Windows Vista.

However, note that for both AMD and Intel dual-core processors, if the motherboard was initially manufactured to run a single-core processor, a BIOS update that allows the system to be configured to run a dual-core processor is probably required. If such an update is not available for such a motherboard, it won't be able to use a dual-core processor. This will not be the case if the motherboard was manufactured to be able to run dual-core processors out of the box.

To run AMD Athlon 64 X2 dual-core processors, motherboards that support both single-core and dual-core processors only require a BIOS update. However, Intel's dual-core processors only work with certain motherboard chipsets, so just having a Socket LGA775 motherboard doesn't mean that it can run Intel's dual-core processors. Intel's Pentium D 800 and 900 series of dual-core processors require a motherboard that uses Intel's 965 chipset or higher or a motherboard with an nVidia nForce 4 chipset. Intel's latest Core 2 Duo processors, including the Core 2 Extreme X6800, require a motherboard with at least a 975 chipset, or a motherboard with an nVidia nForce 5 chipset.

If in doubt, you can easily check the make and model of a motherboard at its manufacturer's site to find out which processors it supports.

Note that if you are upgrading a PC's motherboard and processor, you must also find out if you have to upgrade the RAM memory, because the current types - DDR and DDR2 RAM - are incompatible with each other.

A few of the early Socket LGA775 motherboards that run Intel processors support DDR memory, but most of them require DDR2 memory.

The Socket 939 motherboards that can run some of AMD's Athlon 64 processors require DDR memory, but the Socket AM2 motherboards that run the latest Athlon 64 processors require DDR2 memory.

With dual cores, each processor contains two separate cores capable of running independently. This should not be confused with Intel's HyperThreading technology that allows a single processor to emulate two processors. Nor should it be confused with multiple processors that are discussed further down this page.

Intel has Pentium 4 single-core, the Pentium D (the first range of dual-core processors), and the latest Core 2 Duo dual-core products. Visit http://www.intel.com/ to find out what the current ranges of desktop PC and notebook PC processors being made available by Intel are.

AMD's dual cores consist of a single piece of silicon, while Intel puts two single-core processors into its Socket 775 processor packages - the Pentium D 900 and the Core 2 Duo ranges.

In AMD's design, the processor cores are interconnected within the processing unit itself. In Intel's design, the motherboard's system bus is used to connect the two cores. Moreover, the AMD design integrates the memory controller within the processor, while Intel follows the classic approach of having the memory controller built into the motherboard - even with its latest Core 2 Duo dual-core processors.

The advantages of AMD's design are shorter memory latencies and thus higher memory efficiency, which is one reason why Athlon 64 processors outperform the Pentium processors in the majority of benchmark tests. Moreover, AMD's integrated approach and a more elaborate manufacturing process produces superior energy efficiency compared to Intel's non-integrated approach.

Note that to say that the two versions of Windows XP Home Edition prior to Service Pack 2 (SP2) (the original XP Home and XP Home SP1) don't support Intel's HyperThreading technology because they don't support multiple processors is false. Although that was the information that Microsoft supplied, it is incorrect. Those two versions of Windows XP Home Edition support HyperThreading and dual-core processors.

However, you should note that only Windows XP Professional Edition supports multiple processors (a motherboard running two or more independent processor units). That said, systems running multiple processors are very seldom used as home PCs.

Note that the final Sevice Pack for Windows XP - SP3 - has been available for some time.

Needless to say, all of the versions of Windows Vista support dual-core, triple-core and quad-core processors.

Windows Vista and dual-core and multiple processors

All of the versions of Windows Vista down to Home Basic, support multicore (dual-core) processors, and the Business, Enterprise, and Ultimate Editions all support multiple processors (more than one processor) on the motherboard.

Exploiting Multi-Core Processors in Windows Vista -

http://developer.amd.com/documentation/articles/Pages/282007123.aspx

The Pentium 4 600 series are Intel's high-end range of 64-bit single-core processors, and the Celeron D range is the company's economy range of single-core 64-bit processors. No new socket is used. Note that the D in Celeron D stands for Desktop, not dual-core. A Pentium D is a dual-core processor. As yet (July 2006) , there are no dual-core Celeron processors.

Celeron D - http://www.intel.com/products/proce...ron_D/index.htm

Pentium D - http://www.intel.com/products/proce...ium_D/index.htm

Intel released its new Core 2 Duo dual-core processors on July 27, 2006. Visit the following page for more information on the products.

Intel Core Duo Processors - http://www.intel.com/products/processor/coreduo/

Intel's Processors page - http://www.intel.com/products/processor/

Both the Pentium 4 600 series and the Celeron D range use the existing Socket LGA775 motherboards. However, Intel's dual-core desktop Pentium D processors require a new Socket LGA775 motherboard based on the nForce4 Intel Edition, 955X or 945 chipsets, because of minor pinout changes in their design that require an updated processor socket. An Intel Pentium or Celeron processor is a 64-bit processor if it possesses the EM64T instruction set.

Links to tables containing the specifications of Intel and AMD processors are provided a little lower down on this page. The instruction sets and other features that each model of processor possesses are provided in the tables that are in the form of GIF files that can be zoomed in on.

AMD says that the Athlon 64 X2 (dual-core processors) fit into existing Socket 939 motherboards and require only a BIOS update in order to run, provided that the motherboard can deliver enough power to run a current 90nm Athlon 64 processor. The retail product comes with one in the package, but existing single-core Socket 939 heatsink-and-fan cooling units should be able to cool an X2 unit properly, because the X2 units don't run hotter. Nevertheless, you are advised to find out for sure that an X2 unit will run on your Socket 939 motherboard at its manufacturer's website instead of assuming that it will work, because there could be exceptions.

Note that AMD has moved all of its latest processors to the new Socket AM2. In May 2006, most of the current ranges were also still available for Socket 939 motherboards.

AMD's Socket AM2 and AM2+ and AM3 platforms

AMD's new range of Socket AM2 processors have been available for some time together with the motherboards that run them made by the major manufacturers.

AMD's Socket AM2 processors have an on-board memory controller that supports the latest DDR2 RAM.

In November 2007, the AMD Socket AM2+ quad-core processors called the Phenom arrived on the market.

Socket AM2 - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socket_AM2

Socket AM2+ - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socket_AM2%2B

AMD's Phenom II Socket AM3 triple-core and quad-core processors and the motherboards that run them were made available in February 2009.

Socket AM3 - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socket_AM3

Socket AM3 Arrives: AMD Joins the DDR3 Revolution -

http://www.sysopt.com/features/cpu/article.php/3803661

AMD's Socket AM2+ platform: The Phenom and Phenom II processors

For the first time since its take-over of the graphics-chip company, ATI, AMD has produced a complete platform, code-named Spider, that consists of the new Phenom processor, the 790FX motherboard chipset, and the Radeon HD3800 series of graphics cards.

Intel's quad-core processors are really just two dual-core processors in a single package. However, AMD's quad-core processors have all four cores in a single chip.

The good news is that the Phenom processors, and all of the Athlon 64 Socket AM2 processors, can be used on either the new Socket AM2+ motherboards or on Socket AM2 motherboards. In other words, in order to run, the Phenom processors do not require a new Socket AM2+ motherboard. They will also run in a Socket AM2 motherboard. A Phenom processor uses Hypertransport 2.0 on an AM2+ motherboard, and Hypertransport 1.0 on a AM2 board. However, a BIOS update may be required to run a Phenom processor on an AM2 motherboard.

The single-die, quad-core design involves a greater risk of manufacturing defects resulting in lower yields per silicone wafer. If only one of the four cores is defective, it cannot be sold as a quad-core processor. However, if one of the cores is defective, it is deactivated with the intention in mind of marketing it as a triple-core or tri-core processor. AMD’s customers will therefore soon be able to purchase a less expensive tri-core processor. However, at the time of writing this (November, 2007) no information was available about when the Phenom X3 processors will be brought to the market.

Each of the four processor cores of a Phenom processor possesses its own 512 KB of L2 (Level 2) cache, and all of the cores have access to 2MB of L3 (Level 3) cache, which produces an increase in performance.

Even future Phenom processors manufactured on a 45nm fabrication process and supporting DDR3 memory will run in Socket AM2 and AM2+ motherboards. The Socket AM3 45nm Phenom processors are scheduled for release in 2009.

The other advantages of the Spider platform are that it can be upgraded to use up to four graphics cards, and the platform supports the new PCI Express 2.0 graphics standard.

Motherboard manufacturers Asus, MSI, and Gigabyte were at the introduction of the Spider platform in Warsaw to show off their AM2+ motherboards. According to AMD, the MSI K9A2 Platinum (MS-7376) is currently the best of the offerings.

AMD Phenom Quad-Core Processors -

http://www.amd.com/...0,,30_118_15331_15332,00.html

The price of AMD and Intel dual-core processors

You can find out what the current prices are in the UK at a site such as http:www.overclockers.co.uk/ and at http://www.newegg.com/ in the US.

There are many other vendors that you can locate by making use of the Google search box at the top of this page (with its Web radio button enabled). You could use a search term such as: amd + dual-core + processors.

Problems with overheating did not force AMD to reduce clock speeds in order to run two processor cores within a single unit, which means that each of the cores in AMD's dual-core processors run as fast as the single-core processors that they are created from. However, Intel has clearly had problems with overheating, because the fastest of Intel's current dual-core processors runs at a clock speed of 3.2GHz, while the fastest of Intel's single-core processors runs at a clock speed of 3.8GHz.

If you are not sure if your motherboard can run a particular dual-core Intel processor, visit the manufacturer's website for that information. For example, I discovered that an MSI 7093 motherboard can run Athlon 64 X2 (dual-core) processors by visiting the BIOS update page on the MSI site. The page stated that the latest BIOS update enables dual-core processor support.

Intel dropped the 4 from Pentium 4 for the name of its first range of dual-core processors. The Intel Pentium D 840, 830 and 820, and Intel Pentium Processor Extreme Edition 840 (EE), are all dual-core models. Core 2 Duo is Intel's second range of dual-core processors.

All of the above-mentioned processors can run 32-bit software, but require 64-bit software to run at maximum efficiency. Microsoft has already issued a 64-bit edition of Windows XP Professional Edition, and the Linux kernel can run 64-bit software, but, currently, there is hardly any 64-bit software available.

Visit the following two pages to view tables containing all of the technical specifications (clock speed, supported instruction sets, cache, etc.) and other information, such as the dates of release, of all of the processors made by AMD and Intel up to the present. The further down the list a processor appears, the more recent it is.

Desktop CPU Comparison Guide - AMD processors -

http://www.techarp.com/showarticle.aspx?artno=337&pgno=0

Desktop CPU Comparison Guide - Intel processors -

http://www.techarp.com/showarticle.aspx?artno=337&pgno=4

How to identify a PC's processor(s)

If you want to identify a the make and model of a PC's processor, the easiest way to do it in Windows XP is to use the right mouse button to click on My Computer, click Properties, Hardware, open the Device Manager, and click the + beside Processors.

There is no Processors category in the Device Manager of Windows 95/98/Me, so it's best to use the free utility CPU-Z to identify a processor in a PC using those versions of Windows. You can also use it in Windows XP.

It displays all of the information about the processor that you might need to know, such as its make and model, clock speed, FSB and clock multiplier settings in MHz, etc. It also identifies and displays information about the PC's motherboard (mainboard), and its RAM.

If the computer is running a dual-core processor, look under the Processor Selection heading. The drop-down menu allows you to select the two cores.

http://www.cpuid.org/cpuz.php

Another good utility used for processor identification is the free WCPUID utility, which is made available from http://www.h-oda.com/. Your browser may ask if you want to install various Asian character sets to view the pages, but you can refuse, because the download link and the actual software is in English.

Processor usage - CPU usage - Which processes (programs) are making the most use of the processor as a percentage of the total use

There is an easy way in Windows XP to find out what use is being made of the computer's processor by which processes, measured as a percentage for each process. Just press the Ctrl + Alt + Del keys to bring up the Windows Task Manager, and click on the Performance tab. The CPU Usage graphic shows how many of the processor's available cycles are being used as a percentage by each of the listed processes (all of the listed file names with .exe extensions). The PF Usage refers to how much hard-drive space is being used by the virtual-memory swap file or page file that Windows uses instead of RAM. If the CPU usage is high, especially if it is close to 100% when a demanding program is not running, you should find out why, because spyware might have installed itself and is consuming processor cycles.

If you want to find out which of the listed programs (processes) are using the most processor cycles as a percentage of the total use, click on the Processes tab of the Windows Task Manager, maximise the window, and then click on the CPU heading. The programs that are using the processor are shown and will change as the percentage of the CPU usage of each program changes.

Read Managing Processes and Tasks in Windows Vista to find out what the differences are between the Task Manager in Windows XP and Windows Vista.

Alternatively, use the free Sysinternals Process Explore. Sysinternals was an independent organisation but it is now owned by Microsoft. Visit http://www.microsoft.com/technet/sysinternals/default.mspx for the great free utilities.

If the listed process or processes causing the problem are unfamiliar to you, enter a customised Google search on the name of the process in your browser while you're online in order to find out which software program runs the process.

E.g. - http://www.google.com/search?q=identify+xp+process - in which you would substitute the word process with the file name of the process.

Using a laptop/notebook Pentium M notebook processor in a desktop PC

Click here! to go directly to information on these motherboards, processors, and adapters on the Motherboards pages on this site.

Intel's method of verifying processor authenticity

To prevent resellers from cheating purchasers by substituting counterfeit or modified goods, Intel packages a processor so that the specification number on the processor itself is visible through a clear plastic window. This enables buyers to verify that the specification number printed on the box agrees with the number on the processor itself without having to open the package. If you buy online, you can check and return a processor if it isn't what you bought.

Intel's Core Duo processors and Viiv Technology package for the desktop PC

Intel has recently added dual-core laptop/notebook computer processors to its range called Core 2 Duo, which are also used in Intel's Viiv Technology package that is the equivalent of the Centrino package of processor, chipset, and wireless network adapter for the desktop PC.

Intel® Core™2 Duo -

"Intel® Core™2 Duo processors feature Intel® Core™ microarchitecture, a revolutionary blueprint that takes these Intel® processors and products to extraordinary levels of performance and power efficiency." -

http://www.intel.com/core2duo/index.htm?iid=homepage+c2d

Intel® Core™ Duo Processors - "The Intel® Core™ Duo processor breaks new ground. Its dual-core technology rewrites the rules of computing, delivering optimized power efficient computing and breakthrough dual-core performance with amazingly low power consumption. Intel Core Duo processor is available in Intel's premium laptop platform, Intel® Centrino® Duo mobile technology+. It can also be found in select Intel® Viiv™ technology-based systems." - http://www.intel.com/products/processor/coreduo/

Intel® Viiv™ technology - "Intel's new platform designed for the enjoyment of digital entertainment—Intel® Viiv™ technology—delivers the multitasking power of a dual-core processor and enables sleek new designs that fit your lifestyle." -

http://www.intel.com/products/viiv/index.htm

AMD Live!

AMD Live! is AMD's branding for computers designed for digital entertainment. It is the equivalent of Intel's Viiv.

http://www.intel.com/products/viiv/index.htm

An AMD Live! PC has to meet several hardware and software requirements, including a dual-core AMD processor, such as a Turion 64 X2 for laptop/notebook PCs and an Athlon 64 X2 4200+ for desktop PCs. AMD Live! computers should come with Windows XP Media Center Edition, Windows Vista Home Premium, or Windows Vista Ultimate, which all run the Media Center. A suite of software should also be included that can, for instance, allow the user to share files online. This software pack can be downloaded from http://www.amdlive.com/gb-en/free_downloads.aspx.

Unfortunately, the situation with regard to the complexities involved in choosing or even identifying the kind of processor required in a laptop or desktop PC intended for use for specific purposes is set to get even more confusing. Now that invisible features are being added to processors instead of raw clock speed, both Intel, and, to a lesser extent at present, AMD, think that it is a good idea to include an encoded description of what those features are in the model names of their processors. Unfortunately, AMD seems intent on following Intel's lead in creating the same kind of confusion about its processors.

This is what Tom's Hardware Guide had to say on this subject on a page that no longer exists:

"It is hard to decide whether it was a bunch of marketing people that didn't think through how to categorize future processors properly, or if Intel actually intended the nomenclature to go bananas. Either way, it is clear that with processor numbering schemes becoming increasingly complex, nobody but the most deeply involved enthusiasts, tech journalists and the technical elite of the industry will be able to keep track of processor models, their features and performance capabilities."

In any case, before you purchase a desktop or laptop/notebook computer, it is advisable to find out what the make and model of the processor used in the machine is, and then conduct a Google search for its manufacturer's site and others that provide information on it.

It's possible to install a motherboard that can run two separate processors (multiple processors) in a personal computer, but most current computers use a motherboard that can run only one processor - or a dual-core processor.

The operating system has to be designed to run multiple processors. Linux, Windows 2000, Windows XP Professional Edition (32- or 64-bit versions), Windows XP SP2 Home Edition, and Windows Server 2003 can do so, but the two versions of Windows XP Home Edition prior to SP2 (the original XP Home and XP Home SP1) and Windows 95/98/Me cannot. Windows 95/98/Me can't run multiple processors or multiple-core processors. The software being used also has to be programmed to use multiple processors, otherwise it will just use one of the processors.

This MS Knowledge Base article: Computers that are running Windows XP Service Pack 2 and that are equipped with multiple processors that support processor power management features may experience decreased performance applies to Windows XP Service Pack 2 when used with Windows XP Home Edition and Windows XP Professional Edition.

Windows Vista and dual-core and multiple processors

All of the versions of Windows Vista down to Home Basic, support multicore (dual-core/quad-core) processors, and the Business, Enterprise, and Ultimate Editions all support multiple processors on the motherboard (that is, the motherboard must have more than one processor socket).

Exploiting Multi-Core Processors in Windows Vista -

http://developer.amd.com/documentation/articles/Pages/282007123.aspx

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Each of the AMD Athlon 64 X2 dual-core chips can be installed in the standard Socket 939 motherboards used by the latest Athlon 64 and Athlon 64 FX processors as long as the motherboard maker provides an updated BIOS. However, Intel's dual-core desktop Pentium D processors require a new motherboard based on the nForce4 Intel Edition, 955X or 945 chipsets, because of minor pinout changes in their design that require a new processor socket.

Note that a licence for Windows XP (or any other version of Windows) only allows the use of a single processor. If you use two separate processors on a motherboard, you have to purchase two licences for Windows. This is not the case with a dual-core processor, because it is installed as a single unit in a single socket on the motherboard.

The software that can make optimal use of a dual-core processor has to be multithreaded. Currently, there isn't much such software in existence. Since most software is still designed to make use of a single processor, a dual-core processor, such as the AMD Athlon X2 4800+, performs much like a single-core Athlon 64 4000+ processor when running an application, because both cores run at 2.4GHz, which is the same speed as the Athlon 64 4000+ processor. However, when two applications are run at the same time, each one is run on a core of its own, so both of them run at full speed.

Visit this page - http://multicore.amd.com/ - to find out more about AMD's dual-core processors.

HT stands for HyperThreading. It is technology that belongs to Intel that allows a single processor to emulate two processors, so AMD Athlon processors don't use it.

If you see nm in relation to processors, it stands for nanometres, and describes how small the manufacturing process - called fabrication - can wire the processor's interconnections - measured in nanometres. Intel has already updated from using 130nm to using a 90nm fabrication process, which is used to manufacture the Pentium 4 Prescott and AMD's Athlon 64 processors. Determined to keep one step ahead of AMD, Intel will soon be moving to the even more miniaturised 65nm technology.

A nanometre is a billionth of a metre (a nanosecond is a billionth of a second), where a billion is 1,000 million, so a namometre is 10 to the power of minus 9 of a metre; an incredibly small distance.

Below are images showing the top (left), and underside views of the Intel's Celeron 1.7GHz Socket 478 processor. The 478 is derived from the number of pins on the processor - 478 - that fit into the socket. Note that Socket 478 has been replaced by Socket LGA775.

The pins can clearly be seen in the image on the right. The processor can stand on its pins, but should one break off, or bend so that it doesn't fit into its corresponding hole in the processor socket, the processor won't be able to function. Bent pins can be straightened, but if a pin breaks off, a new processor would be required.

Intel's Celeron 1.7GHz Socket 478 processor - top view

The start-up screen for a system running an American Megatrends (AMI) BIOS and an AMD Athlon 64 3200+ processor is shown below. The Checking NVRAM.. 1048576KB OK is 1GB of RAM. There may be power problems with upgrading a system to run large amounts of RAM. See the RAM page on this site for more information on this subject.

The system's DRAM clock is shown as 400MHz, so DDR400 (PC3200) RAM) is installed. Pressing the DEL key enters the BIOS setup program, pressing the F11 key brings up the Boot Menu, and pressing the F10 key runs the BIOS recovery utility, which you would use if the computer won't boot past the start-up screen, and you can't enter the BIOS because it has become corrupt.

The start-up screen for a system running an AMD Athlon 64 3200+ processor

How to install a socketed processor

In order to install a particular make and model of processor in a motherboard, that motherboard and its BIOS setup program must support it. All of the recent and current processors made by Intel and AMD just have to be installed in a motherboard that is properly installed in a PC's case with RAM memory, video/graphics card, etc., in order for the supporting BIOS to recognise and configure it for the operating system, which is usually a version of Windows.

To install a socketed processor that has pins on its underside involves nothing more than matching the pin grid array on the processor with the socket's pin grid, lifting the ZIF (zero insertion force) lever on the socket, inserting the processor so that it fits flush with the socket on all sides, and then lowering the ZIF lever so that the processor is held fast in the socket.

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Intel's Pentium 4 Socket LGA775 processors and later Socket LGA775 Intel processors don't have pins; they have metal contact points called a land grid array (LGA). The flat contacts on the processor's underside make contact with tiny coils on pins inside the socket. The processor sits on top of them.

The coils inside the socket are mounted on pieces of metal (pins), which give them a bit of spring so that they push up and make firm contact with the metal contact points on the processor. When you install or remove the processor, it's possible to bend or move the pins. If one or more of the coils can't make contact with the processor, the computer won't start up. If that hapens after you've installed the processor or removed and reinstalled it, examine the socket from above. The pattern of pinsshould be completely ordered and symmetrical.

If any of the pins are out of line, you can use a knife with a sharp point or a pin to ease them back into position, but you must make sure that you don't cause a short circuit by leaving any of them making contact with each other.

The idea is to get the vertical part of each of these inner pins into an upright position and equidistant from the surrounding pins. It might not be possible to get them exactly equidistant from one another, but as long as their locations are approximately right, they should be able to make contact with the contact points on the processor. If you replace the processor and its heatsink and starting up the computer fails, you'll have to try adjusting the pins until startup takes place.

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When the processor is placed in its socket, the heatsink and fan unit, also known as a CPU cooler or cooling unit (usually custom made for the particular make and model of processor), is fitted over the processor, and, depending on its type, is either plugged into a socket on the motherboard, or attached to a power plug from the case's power supply unit. Retail boxed AMD and Intel processors come with illustrated installation instructions, the diagrams of which are easy to follow if the written instructions are not easy to understand. A heatsink and fan unit is supplied with the boxed product, but not usually with the OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) product, which is supported by the retailer/vendor instead of AMD. Installation instructions aren't usually provided with OEM computer components. Only AMD sells OEM processors. Intel only sells the retail, boxed product.

Each of the major motherboard manufacturers provides user manuals for every motherboard it has released on to the market. The installation instructions vary for the make and model of the processor and the make and model of the motherboard.

To read examples, you can download the manuals for the latest MSI motherboards free of charge from http://www.msi.com.tw/. The manuals provide illustrated instructions on how to install the processor in its socket. Each type of processor will have its own method of being correctly aligned in its socket. Instructions are also provided in the manual on how to install a heatsink and fan unit over the processor. All of the major motherboard manufacturers provide user manuals for their boards, and copies in the PDF format are also provided from the motherboard manufacturer's website. Those instructions are also provided when you buy a retail, boxed processor.

Here is an illustrated example (a PDF file) of the application of thermal compound between the heatsink and an Intel dual-core processor:

How to apply Arctic Silver 5 Intel Dual Core CPU W/Heatspreader -

http://www.arcticsilver.com/pdf/appinstruct/as5/ins_as5_intel_dual_wcap.pdf

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See the image below that shows the top and bottom (pin grid array) views of an Athlon 64 processor. The triangle in one of the corners shows where the processor has to be inserted into the matching corner of the socket on the motherboard.

Top and bottom views of an AMD Athlon 64 processor

The top of Intel's Pentium 4 processors look the same as the Athlon 64 processors, but the underside pin-grid-array of a Pentium 4 with a Prescott core looks like this:

The pin grid array of a Prescott Pentium 4 processor

Those are not pins that fit into holes in the processor socket, they are flattish contact points that make contact with matching points in the socket.

If you need to see how Intel and AMD processors are installed, view these videos:

Intel Cpu Install - Shows the installation of the processor, heatsink, and removal of the heatsink. - http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=b6NbPMQgwPM

AMD SOCKET 754 939 940 AM2 install MOVIE - Shows the installation of the processor, heatsink, and removal of the heatsink. -

http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=Yn14oA6Db4k&NR=1

There is no need to use an electro-static discharge (ESD) wrist strap. Just touch some metal that is not insulated from the ground, such as a the PC's case.

The AMD Athlon 64, Athlon 64 FX, and Athlon 64 X2 (dual-core) 64-bit processors

Most current desktop and mobile computers use 32-bit processors made by Intel or AMD. But that position won't last long because the latest processors made by both companies are 64-bit processors that can run both 32-bit and 64-bit software.

The single-core Athlon 64 and dual-core Athlon 64 X2 64-bit processors from AMD (that, in theory, can access and transport twice as much data at once as 32-bit processors) are available. The new processors have more pins than their predecessors, the Athlon XP Socket A processors, which are now out of production.

The Athlon 64 processors can run 64-bit applications, which are not yet available, and the current 32-bit software. A 64-bit version of Windows XP Professional Edition for 64-bit processors is now available, but there is currently (August 2005) no 64-bit version of Windows XP Home Edition.

No emulation mode is used by a 64-bit processor in order for it to run 32-bit software. The processor can run both types naturally and at once.

Click here! to go to information on the Software pages of this site on the 64-bit versions of Windows XP and Windows Vista.

Intel abandons the clock-speed race and drops its 4.0GHz Pentium processor

October 18, 2004. Intel has announced that it is to cease the development of its 4.0GHz Pentium processor. In July 2004, it announced that the 4.0GHz processor would not achieve its shipment dates for the end of the year, and put back the launch dated to the spring of 2005. But, for the time being, 3.8GHz is to remain the highest clock speed for the Pentium processor. Intel says that it will be transferring its engineers to work on the dual-core designs demonstrated at the recent Developer's Forum. The reason for this change in policy is probably because Intel and arch-rival AMD have been having increasingly difficult problems with producing reliable fabrications able to cope with the amount of heat generated by such high clock speeds. First AMD and now Intel have moved away from developing raw clock speed towards putting more than one processor on a single chip. Early indications show that the dual-core strategy boosts performance by up to 55 per cent.

The clock-speed contest may be at at an end, but, for marketing purposes, Intel still needs to show that its processors are constantly improving. Hence the adoption of a new way of naming them. For more information on this subject, read this earlier story:

Intel adopts a new and highly confusing numbering system for its processors

Intel has decided to use a new confusing numbering system for its processors instead of using just the name of the processor and its clock-speed in gigahertz (GHz).

"Intel Introduces Processor Numbers" -

http://www.intel.com/products/processor_number/info.htm#p4htt

"Pentium® 4 processors Optimization Tip - Driver Installation Order"

"Correct Driver installation is crucial to overall platform performance. This is especially true for the Intel® 850 and Intel® 845 chipsets. Drivers should always be installed in the order displayed in Table 1 below. The most critical step in the installation order is to run the Intel® Chipset Software Installation Utility before all other drivers. Once the chipset is properly detected and configured using this utility, device driver installation order becomes less crucial and will have less impact on system performance." - From a page called Pentium® 4 processors Optimization Tip - Checking Driver Installation that no longer exists on Intel's site.

Visit Intel.com for any such information or Intel Chipset Software Installation Utility that you need for your particular motherboard's Intel chipset.

Laptop/notebook processors

Laptop processors are designed to make portable computing as efficient as possible. The processors are designed to have a low power consumption that can be lowered even further by the use of the power-management software that is built into the operating system (Windows, Linux, etc.) Consequently, mobile laptops don't need to have large cases for additional cooling hardware and they're lighter.

Visit the Laptop PCs page on this site for more information about them.

Processor reviews

Computer Shopper UK - Processors:

http://www.pcpro.co.uk/shopper/processors/

Computer Shopper UK - Processor reviews:

http://www.pcpro.co.uk/shopper/archiveproductsearch/16/Processors

Anandtech's Processor and Chipset (CPU/Chipsets) reviews:

http://www.anandtech.com/cpuchipsets/

Benchmark tests

If you want to run benchmark tests on the processor, RAM, video/graphics card, and hard disk drive, download PCMark04 from http://www.futuremark.com/.

CPU Killer

The latest super-fast processors operate at speeds (frequencies) that old programs (such as those designed for an MS DOS system) weren't designed to run at. Consequently, such software may fail to work properly, if at all. CPU Killer is a free utility that allows a user to slow a super-fast processor down sufficiently to be able to run old software. -

http://www.cpukiller.com/products/cpukiller/

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